What are the two parts of Saussure s modern linguistics?

Synchronic and diachronic linguistics.

1. Synchronic linguistics: also known as static linguistics, was developed by Saussure.

Linguistics was created to distinguish between two languages or whether they are phonetically identical, or whether two words in the same language are identical. The characteristic of this discipline is that it insists on independent analysis in the two languages at the same stage in order to solve or understand the similarities and differences between the two languages.

2. Diachronic linguistics: refers to the study of the historical evolution of a language carried out by most linguists before the emergence of modern linguistics, mainly studying the various changes experienced by the language in a certain time span, and using the confrontal and retrospective methods to study the problems.

Mainly: synchronic linguistics and diachronic linguistics.

The General Linguistics Course is the entirety of Saussure's linguistics. The main contents are as follows:

The book is only 331 pages, from the preface to the index and table of contents. In addition to"Introduction"In addition, it is divided into five parts: (1) General Principles, (2) Synchronic Linguistics, (3) Diachronic Linguistics, (4) Geographical Linguistics, and (5) Review of Linguistic Problems.

Introduction"A brief account of the history of linguistics and its relationship to other sciences, the objects of linguistics, the internal and external elements of speech acts, the language of written representation, and phonology. The general principles section focuses on the nature of linguistic signs, the immutability and variability of signs, and various theoretical issues in static linguistics and evolutionary linguistics.

Synchronic linguistics] is divided into eight chapters, which discuss the structural principles of the linguistic system in addition to the introduction; identity, reality and value; linguistic values; combinatorial and associative relationships (aggregation relationships); linguistic institutions; Grammar and its subdivisions and the role of abstract entities in grammar, etc.

Diachronic linguistics is also divided into eight chapters, which describe the evolution of phonetics in addition to an introduction; the grammatical consequences of phonological evolution; analogy; Analogy and Evolution, Popular Etymology; adhesion; Diachronic parts, identity, and reality, etc.

The geolinguistics section is divided into four chapters, which deal with language differences, the complexities of geographic differences, the causes of geographic differences, and the propagation of language waves.

Finally, the Review of Linguistic Issues section is divided into five chapters, each describing two scenarios of diachronic linguistics, the oldest languages and primitive types, reconstruction, linguistic evidence in anthropology and prehistory, and language families and language types.

Saussure distinguishes between the linguistics of language and the linguistics of speech, as well as synchronic and diachronic linguistics.

Saussure's linguistic research is made up of linguistics and synchronic linguistics of language.

Saussure's linguistic views are as follows:

Saussure divided speech activity into two parts: "langue" and "parole". Language is the social part of speech activity, it is not governed by the will of the individual, it is shared by the members of society, and it is a social psychological phenomenon. Speech is the part of speech activity that is governed by the will of the individual, and it has the characteristics of individual pronunciation, word use, and sentence formation.

But regardless of the individual's differences, individuals in the same community can communicate with each other because of the unifying effect of language. Saussure further pointed out that language has internal and external elements, so language research can be divided into internal linguistics and external linguistics. Internal linguistics studies the structural system of language itself, while external linguistics studies the relationship between language and ethnicity, culture, geography, history, etc.

Implications for structuralism:

It was not until the sixties of the twentieth century that the trend of structuralism began to gain global popularity, mainly because it was in a period of intensification of contradictions and conflicts around the world.

At that time, the Eastern and Western camps were shrouded in the haze of the Cold War, and the surging anti-imperialist and anti-colonial liberation movements in Asia, Africa, and Latin America also made people feel the nightmare of war. On the other hand, even within the developed capitalist countries of Europe and the United States, the fierce conflicts caused by political, economic, and racial contradictions in society have arisen one after another, wave after wave.

Many historians and sociologists today tend to see the 1960s as a reaction or rupture from the 1950s, the "hallmark" of which is what is called "political and cultural radicalism".

At the same time, this radical trend of thought penetrated into all fields of humanities and social sciences, causing a great differentiation and integration in the entire European and American ideological and theoretical circles at that time. One of the most prominent phenomena is that with the rise of a group of structuralist ideologues such as Saussure, Lévi-Strauss, and Roman Jacobson, the original way of thinking influenced by positivism and focusing on pragmatism has gradually shifted to a relative way of thinking. The "diachronic" perspective of observation is replaced by the "synchronic" perspective of observation.

Arbitrariness and linearity.

Saussure. Linguistics, also known as "Saussureism", is based on the distinction between language and speech, arguing that linguistics can only "study language for the sake of language", excluding any non-linguistic factors (e.g., social, physical, verbal?). ) interference; As far as language is concerned, it is necessary to distinguish between synchronic and diachronic, and linguistics only studies the synchronic language system, excluding any diachronic interference; As far as the study of synchronic language systems is concerned, only the form is studied, not the substance, "language is the form, not the substance.""is the epitome of this idea.

Saussure's linguistics is the pioneering work of modern linguistics and structuralist linguistics, and many of the theoretical foundations of modern linguistics are based on this.

Linguistic symbols have two properties: they are scattered.

the arbitrariness of the symbol;

A linear sequence of symbols, words can only be said word by word, not several sentences at the same time.

At the same time, Saussure has two additional points:

Language has always been a system that is used by every member of society at all times, and the speaker is only readily accepted, so there is a great deal of continuity.

The things represented by linguistic signs and the form of the symbols themselves can change over time, so language is constantly changing and evolving.

Saussure's linguistic views are as follows:

1. Language and speech.

For speech activity, Saussure divides it into two parts, namely "language" and "speech". Among them, language emphasizes that verbal ability is a psychosocial phenomenon that is not governed by the will of the individual. Speech emphasizes the individual's behaviour when he or she uses his or her own skills to cultivate the mountain.

2. The signifier and signifier of language.

In essence, the linguistic state dialect is a system of symbols, and linguistic signs are composed of "signifiers" and "signifiers", where the signifier represents the sound image and the signifier represents the concept.

3. Systematization of language.

This systematization is objective, and in the system of language, each unit is a member, and its value in the system, that is, its status and its relationship with other units, determines what it is.

4. There are no exceptions to the sound change.

According to the theory of the new grammar school, the change of phonetic harmony environment determines the change of phonetics, and the change of phonetic environment will also affect the change of phonetic environment. As long as a speech changes, the tone in that particular speech environment will change accordingly, and there are no exceptions to this change.

5. The principle of analogy.

Analogy is based on the structure of a pattern and replacing it with the same form as syntax and semantic function. If it is a phonetic change, it will only involve the difference in the phonetic environment, but if it is an analogy, it will involve the relationship between the grammatical structure and the phonological structure.

Saussure is known as the father of modern linguistics for the reason he shaped linguistics into an influential independent discipline. Since 1907, he has been teaching the course of "General Linguistics", and has lectured three times on the Zheng Ma people.

Language is a science based on symbols and meanings, and is now commonly referred to as semiotics.

Saussure's linguistic ideas are known today as "Saussure's linguistics", also known as "Saussureism". The influence of Saussure's theory of language is not limited to linguistics, but also many fields such as modern anthropology, psychoanalysis, literature, philosophy, and drama have been profoundly influenced by his shortcomings, and the theory and method of the Course in General Linguistics are used to analyze the structure of the objects studied in these disciplines.